An Introduction to Semiotics

The Italian intellectual Umberto Eco stated that 'a sign is anything that can be used to tell a lie.' Whilst this idea might initially seem arrogant and irrational, it begins to make sense with a basic understanding of what 'semiotics' means.

The Dictionary.com definition of Semiotics is:

–noun (used with a singular verb)

1. the study of signs and symbols as elements of communicative behavior; the analysis of systems of communication, as language, gestures, or clothing.

2. a general theory of signs and symbolism, usually divided into the branches of pragmatics, semantics, and syntactics.

Therefore, semiotics is basically an area of study looking at signs as a means of communication. When used with regard to media, then, semiotics must refer to the use of signs as a communicative medium within this field.

It is important to understand that semiotics is by no means a narrow spectrum of study, because signs can take on an extremely wide variety of forms. If we divide a sign into its fundamental components, we are left with the Signifier and the Signified. The Signifier is the material of which the sign is composed, whether that be text, images, sounds, etc. The Signified is the concept that the Signifier alludes to.

Signifiers work because they represent thoughts and ideas that have been associated with them in a given society or culture. For example, in modern Britain, on the most basic level, a green man connotes safety. It is important, however, to realise that semiotics are culturally relative; the meaning expressed by a sign will change depending on context. For example, although a green man in Britain may connote road safety, a green man in parts of America could imply alien activity.

Once this understanding is established, it isn't hard to recognise semiotics at work.

• The BBFC, as explored in an earlier post, use symbols to represent their classifications.
• The ostentatious use of red in movie titles.
• The exploitative use of celebrities in advertising.

The media industry use signs because they are an efficient way of expressing a large amount of information with very little material. If a film director wanted to instill a sense of mystery in a city setting, they wouldn't have the main character walk into the scene and express his thoughts about the city in a long and detailed monologue. Instead, they would choose something more subtle and visceral, such as a layer of fog on the setting, with dim lighting, creating only patches of light. Whilst they still might include a reference to the character's thoughts, this would be ambiguous, creating an even deeper sense of mystery.

When working to produce a film that fits into the conventions of such a disinguished style as film noir, it is important to consider semiotics as a powerful method of creating the desired effect. I am certain that my new found knowledge of semiotics will prove helpful in allowing me to replicate the conventions of film noir in my practical task later in the year.

Click here for a more in-depth exploration of semiotics with particular focus on advertising.

Exploring Regulations

In the early 1900s, with film becoming increasingly popular, the British film industry decided that some degree of uniformity was required in order to regulate the exhibition of films nationally. As a result, in 1912, the British Board of Film Censors (BBFC) was established. This was an independent, non-governmental body that would classify and censor films in order to protect audiences. In 1984, when Parliament passed the Video Recordings Act, the BBFC changed the last word in its name to Classification instead of Censors, to reflect their focus on classification over censorship.

The basic idea on which the BBFC functions is the notion of protection in the film industry. At the same time as entertaining consumers, it is important that the industry as a whole feels responsible for the comfort and safety of its audiences. Because movies are usually produced with a certain audience in mind, and for specific purposes, it is important that these aims are able to be fulfilled without causing any harm or annoyance. For example, if a violent horror movie intended for adult viewing was watched by a group of three year olds, it may cause them to feel distressed and upset, when this was not its intention.

In order to prevent such occurances, the BBFC classifies films using 7 categories, although only the first 5 are regularly utilized. This is because the seventh category, R18, restricts films with the highest levels of explicit content to licensed adult stores and cinemas, and the 12 category is not used for cinema. Cuts can also be used to omit material, but only if it is absolutely necessary.

Below is a list of the main BBFC classifications, along with a brief explanation of the specifications and an example film.

Universal - Suitable for all
Films under this classification should contain a positive moral framework and deal sensitively with the theme. They should not reference drugs, discrimination, or any other similar issue without showing strong disapproval of endorsement. Any mild horror should have a reassuring outcome, sex can only be referenced mildly, and natural nudity is only allowed with no essence of sexual connotation. Only very mild bad language. An example U is Finding Nemo.


Parental Guidance - Some scenes may be unsuitable for young children
Such films should not disturb a child of eight or older. Whilst not as constricting as the universal classifications, PG still limits aspects of sex, violence, language, drugs, discrimination and horror in detail and intensity. As the title suggests, it is sensible for parents to accompany children. An example PG is Shrek.

Twelve A - Not recommended for children under twelve, but is allowed if accompanyed by a responsible adult.
The same as above, although stronger language is allowed as long as it is infrequent, and dangerous behavior or violence cannot dwell on detail and should show its harmful effects in context. Sexual content should be briefly and discreetly portrayed. The 12A rating is only used in cinema, and 12 only on published media. An example of a 12A is The Dark Knight.

Fifteen - Suitable only for those aged fifteen or above
Any theme is allowed as long as long as it is treated suitably. For example, references to sexual violence can be made, but strong sadistic or sexualised violence cannot be shown. Bad language is acceptable as long as it is justified by the context. Most other rules are the same as 12A. An example of a 15 is I Am Legend.



Eighteen - Suitable only for adults over the age of eighteen
Under this final classification, the BBFC guidelines usually do not override the principle of freedom of choice in entertainment for adults. Despite this, there are still conditions under which a film will not even be classified here. These include circumstances where the material is in brech of criminal law, where the film may cause damage to public health or morality, and where there are unjustified explicit images. An example of an 18 is Saw.

Although these classifications are not technically laws, the 2003 Licensing Act states that all cinemas require a license from their local authority, which must include an agreement to restrict the admission of children in accordance with the above classifications.

In the BBFC there are examiners from a wide range of professions who watch movies and make a judgement under which category the film should fall, and whether any cuts need to be made. These are led by Senior Examiners, who have more experience in the field. There is a management team which includes a Director, to make executive decisions, and a collection of others responsible for certain areas of the council, such as communications and technology. Above this, there is a President and two Vice-Presidents, who are responsible for the classification of Video. To keep the whole BBFC in check, there is the Council of Management, who overseer senior appointments and financial matters. As with any kind of modern organisation, the BBFC also have Informations, Personnel, and Accounts departments.

This information was summarised after research on the official BBFC website.

Continuity Ideas: Analysis of Doorway Images

At some point prior to my main practical production, I will be performing a continuity task to show that I am aware of the principle and conventions of continuity. Here, I have collected five images of people using doors, and have explained the ways in which they may influence my continuity task.

1. As an incredibly low-angled shot, this would perhaps work in a film-noir in order to make a character look abnormal or insane. The odd perspective certainly warps the shape of the subject, and our mental interpretation of the character is warped as a result.

The issue with continuity is that the perspective of this shot is at such a low angle that the audience may become confused. If there was to be a relatively normal shot of the man heading towards the door, followed by a cut to this shot, the audience would be momentarily disorientated. This is precisely what should be avoided with continuity, and so the preceding shot should also use a low angle, probably focuing on the subject's feet.

Unfortunately, the environment is too 'office-like' and the exposure is too high, so the shot doesn't really fit with the gritty film-noir stylings. Also, the composition contains too much of the man's shoe, which could easily have been placed to the side of the camera to show more of the subject. Overall, the shot would not work for basic continuity in a film-noir production, because it demands too much of the camera position and actually looks more comical than gritty, due to the awkward composition.

2. Unlike the previous image, this shot focuses upon the bottom of the doorwar, and we cannot yet see the person behind it.

The high-contrast in lighting between each room implies that there is something different or peculiar about the dark room.

I think that this would work in terms of continuity if it followed a mid-shot of the person walking towards the door on the other side. From this very frame, as the door opens to let light into the room, the camera could tilt gradually up to reveal a sharp sillhouette of the character. Although this would work well for a film-noir with the single adjustment of colder lighting, the type of camera we are allowed would probably not cope with the ambitious high contrast.

3. Although this may seem like an unusual image to analyse for this purpose, I have noticed that an increasing amount of TV shows and movies have used either actual security cameras or at least simulated the effects of these on a shot. These work because they link the consecutive shots together as well as making the audience aware of the secuirty camera's presence.

The low-contrast colours and bordering time-stamp show us this is security footage.

This could follow a shot of the subject walking down a street towards the door, and could cut to a tracking shot of the subject inside the building once she has left the frame. Equally, this shot could be used for a split second in between shots either side of the door, or could follow a close-up of the security camera itself, much like an eye-line match.

4. Although the colour palette is way too warm for a film-noir, the composition would work well for a match-on-action, as the hand on the door jamb would link a shot from within the other room.

With colder lighting and a subject that looked more dishevelled, the shot could work well for a film-noir, as it would distance the character from their surroundings, and create a surreal and unnerving undertone.

5. Out of this small collection, this image is easily the most suited to the style of film-noir, as the absence of colour, scruffy subject, and dowdy environment work to evoke an atmosphere of pessimism and hopelessness.

Seeing as the shot clearly shows the subject leaving some place resembling to a pub, the preceding shot would simply have to show the character finishing his pint at the bar, or something similar. Because the shot is composed of a lot of connotative architecutre, the audience need not see a linking shot edited to match-on-action, they can simply tell that the character is leaving the establishment from this shot alone.

Lights, Camera Angles, Action!

To show our understanding of techniques and our practical ability to film, we were asked to produce examples of a variety of camera-angles along with filming and editing techniques. After joining a group, we were provided with video cameras and let loose around the school with creative freedom. I worked with Daniel Knights, James Wigger, Megan Forster and Conor Murray to produce this video exhibiting our work.

Target Audience: 'ists' and 'isms'

In the modern world, it is almost impossible to look into the media industry without coming across the concept of a 'target audience'. Every media product produced, whether an advertisement, newspaper or film, has a defined purpose with a specific target audience. An audience is a collection of consumers, and the creators of the media product target a specific collection of consumers with regard to the product and its appeal. For example, the creators of a magazine entitled 'Gardener's Monthly' would most probably focus on gardeners as their target audience, and would need to seriously consider a career change if they had done otherwise.



To simplify the process of determining a particular audience to target, the media industry has resorted to categorising and labelling certain types or groups of people. Just as a blissfully ignorant school-child might define a dislikeable cohort as a 'chav' in order to make their social stance clear, a media company will label types of people depending on certain factors, such as aesthetic preference or yearly income, in order to clarify their aims. Over the latter decades of the 20th Century up until now, this categorisation system has developed in complexity, and can describe almost any comprehendable type of audience with a smothering range of terminology.

When defining an audience, the media uses two main types of categorisation. The first of these is know as the Quantitative Method. This method of categorisation looks at aspects of individuals that are determined by amount or quantity. For example, yearly income and age both fall into this method. Accompanying this method are 'socio-economic-brackets', which classify areas of society into grades, making them easier to target for the media industry.

social grade	social status	occupation
A	upper middle class	higher managerial, administrative orprofessional
B	middle class	intermediate managerial, administrative orprofessional
C1	lower middle class	supervisory or clerical, junior managerial,administrative or professional
C2	skilled working class	skilled manual workers
D	working class	semi and unskilled manual workers
E	those at lowest level of subsistence	state pensioners or widows (no other earner),casual or lowest grade workers

This table is provided by the NRS (National Readership Survery), and is funded by the UK Institute of Practitioners in Advertising (IPA), Newspaper Publishers Association (NPA), and Periodical Publishers Association (PPA). Copied from http://www.businessballs.com/demographicsclassifications.htm

The other type of categorisation is the Qualitative Method. This focuses on the actual qualities of the audience, such as their asthetic preferences and consumer habits. Film audiences are generally split into three sections, which can be used to define what films might appeal to them. Here is a list of the three categories, along with a definition and some example films:

Hedonist: Purely devoted to their own pleasure and are likely to take risks for this purpose. Such a person would probably watch films like Cloverfield and Final Destination 3D for the thrill aspect, and might chance watching an independent film such as Little Miss Sunshine or Gangster No.1 without really knowing what to expect.

Traditionalist: Sticks to conventions for safety and security. Traditionalists like to have their expectations fulfilled, and would go to watch movies with rigid conventions. Such films include Disney Pixar's Finding Nemo, the original James Bond action films, and almost any romantic comedy.

Post Modernist: A person with intellectual interest, who will revel in intertextual references and enjoy analysing the way in which the film has been constructed. A post modernist would enjoy watching films like District 9, which transposes a science fiction story over South Africa's troubling history. They would also watch movies such as Pulp-Fiction, Run Lola Run, and Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, so as to enjoy the thought and creativity that has made the film.

Whilst these categories generally work for the media industry in areas of research and marketing, it is important to remember that the definitions are not set in stone; a predominantly Hedonistic film may appeal mainly to Post-Modernists, for example.

On top of this, any consumer can be labeled as either Active or Passive. Active consumers will purposefully consume a specific media product, whilst Passive consumers will happen to consume it because it was either forced upon them, or they were guided into it. For example, a woman going to see the latest romantic comedy would be an Active consumer, whilst the poor man being dragged relentlessly along behind her would be a Passive consumer.

Film Noir & Films Now

It is generally agreed that the era of classic Film Noir spanned almost two decades, from the early 1940's to the late 1950's. The term 'Film Noir' was coined by cinema critics and historians in retrospect, to define a genre of film that revolved around dark themes of pessimism, fatalism and menace. The characters didn't necessarily take the moral high-ground, and events generally took a turn for the worst, leaving the main protagonist tied in a web of betrayal and corruption. The dark, gritty cinematography exhibited all of these thoughts and emotions in a stylishly bleak package. Over the decades, Film Noir evolved into different styles, and it's trademark conventions have been utilised in a variety of genres. The impact of Film Noir can clearly be seen in the violent work of Quentin Tarantino, the psychologically unsettling The Dark Knight, and even the thoughtfully evocative District 9.

The Dark Knight borrows a great deal from Film Noir in terms of characterisation. The main plot also revolves around moral dilemmas, which expose the depraved personalities of heros and villians alike. Desaturated colour palettes and gloomy night-time environments are used to present Gotham City as a true dystopia, whilst close-ups and awkward angled shots make the Joker look infinitely menacing.



To get a good idea of the trademark conventions of Film Noir as a style, we looked at the introduction sequence to Casino Royale. As the first Bond film that returned to the core themes of Ian Fleming's 007 novels, the director has chosen a style heavily influenced by Film Noir to reflect the new persona of Bond and his gritty circumstances. Below is the essay that I wrote to analyse the use of Film Noir conventions within the clip. 

Please click 'full' at the bottom of the box for a full-screen view of the document.Casino Royale - Film Noir Essay

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Introducing: Film Noir

Throughout this AS Media unit, I'll be using this blog to document every movement I make regarding my A.S. Media Studies focus on Film Noir. Over the course of the unit, I will examine all aspects of the genre and style of Film Noir; from historical foundation to trademark conventions. At the end of all this analysis and research, I will work with a group to produce a short film which illustrates our critical knowledge of Film Noir, as well as our practical skills used in applying conceptual theories and producing the video. Here, I will post summaries of my critical findings and practical production activity, along with links to research materials and anything interesting or inspirational I find along the way.